Pink Gypsy Moth - aphis - US Department of Agriculture

Mini Risk Assessment 

Pink Gypsy Moth, Lymantria mathura Moore 

[Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae] 

Erica E. Davis 1 , Sarah French 1 , & Robert C. Venette 2 

1-Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 

2-North Central Research Station, USDA Forest Service, St. Paul, MN 

September 29, 2005 

A 

B 

C 

D 

Figure 1. Lymantria mathura: (A&B) Adult female with pink hind wings; (C) adult male 

with yellow hind wings ; (D) larva on foliage of deciduous host. Images not to scale. 

[Images (A-C) courtesy of W. Wallner, USDA Forest Service, 

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/surv/data/lymmate.shtml (D) David Mohn, 

www.forestryimages.org] 

Table of Contents 

Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2 

1. Ecological Suitability.................................................................................................. 2 

2. Host Specificity/Host Availability.............................................................................. 3 

3. Survey Methodology................................................................................................... 7 

4. Taxonomic Recognition.............................................................................................. 8 

5. Entry Potential ............................................................................................................ 8 

CAPS PRA: Lymantria mathura 1

6. Destination of Infested Material ................................................................................. 9 

7. Potential Economic Impact......................................................................................... 9 

8. Potential Environmental Impact ............................................................................... 10 

9. Establishment Potential............................................................................................. 10 

References......................................................................................................................... 11 

Appendix A. Geographic distribution.............................................................................. 15 

Appendix B. Host distribution ......................................................................................... 18 

Appendix C. Taxonomy and morphology ....................................................................... 20 

Appendix D. Threatened or endangered plants................................................................ 23 

Appendix E. Biology ....................................................................................................... 30 

Introduction 

The pink or rosy gypsy moth, Lymantria mathura Moore, is a major defoliator of 

deciduous trees in the Palearctic, primarily in eastern Asia from India to the Russian Far 

East (Roonwal 1979b, Baranchikov et al. 1995, CAB 2004, EPPO 2005). Spurred by 

concerns surrounding L. mathura, the US Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service, USDA Forest Service and Russian counterparts have 

developed an early warning system to alert US pest officials about periods of increased 

insect activity and prevent the introduction of this insect (Anon. 2001). US officials are 

also alerted when New Zealand finds a Russian freighter to be infested with this insect 

(USDA 2001b). 

Risks associated with L. mathura have been evaluated previously. In the Exotic Forest 

Pest Information System, L. mathura was considered to pose a very high risk to North 

America forests relative to other forest pests and pathogens, and this assessment was 

given with a very high degree of certainty (Rosovsky 2001). Gninenko and Gninenko 

(2002) proposed a scoring system to evaluate the relative propensity of different 

lymantriids to be moved by international shipping. These authors suggest that L. 

mathura is less likely than L. dispar or L. monacha to be moved by shipping, but it is 

more likely to be moved than 26 other species of Lymantriidae. Limited biological 

information about lymantriids of the Russian Far East, including L. mathura, complicates 

the assessment of risk (Gninenko and Gninenko 2002). The purpose of this mini-pest 

risk assessment is to further evaluate several factors that contribute to risks posed by 

L. mathura and apply this information to the refinement of sampling and detection 

programs. 

1. Ecological Suitability. Rating: Medium. Lymantria mathura is present 

throughout much of Asia. Appendix A provides a detailed list of the reported 

worldwide distribution of this insect. In general, L. mathura occurs in cool, 

temperate to warm climates with varying amounts of seasonal rainfall, and dry 

periods. The currently reported distribution of L. mathura suggests that the pest 

may be most closely associated with biomes characterized as: temperate broadleaf 

and mixed forests; temperate coniferous forests; tropical and subtopical dry 

broadleaf forests; and tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. Of these 

biomes, only tropical and subtopical dry broadleaf forests do not occur in the US. 


Consequently, we estimate that approximately 38% of the continental US would 

have a suitable climate for L. mathura (Fig. 2). See Appendix A for a more 

complete description of this analysis. 

Figure 2. Predicted distribution (yellow) of Lymantria mathura 

in the contiguous US. 

Figure 2 illustrates where L. mathura is most likely to encounter a suitable climate 

for establishment within the continental US. This prediction is based only on the 

known geographic distribution of the species. Because this forecast is based on 

coarse information, areas that are not highlighted on the map may have some 

chance of supporting populations of this exotic species. However, establishment 

in these areas is less likely than in those areas that are highlighted. Initial surveys 

should be concentrated in the higher risk areas and gradually expanded as needed. 

2. Host Specificity/Host Availability. Rating: Low/High. Lymantria mathura is 

not host specific; it is a polyphagous pest of taxonomically diverse deciduous 

trees that are common across the US (Appendix B). L. mathura reportedly feeds 

on more than 45 genera in 24 families. Table 1 summarizes hosts reported in the 

literature. Numerous accounts of preferential feeding are reported and vary 

widely [see Table 1 below, and Appendix E for more information on host 

selection] (Roonwal 1979b, Baranchikov et al. 1995). 


Table 1. Host plants of Lymantria mathura: 

Hosts 

References 

alder (Alnus sp.) 

(Wallner et al. 1995, Yamazaki and 

Sugiura 2004) 

apple (Malus sp.) (Mohn 1993, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et al. 1999, CAB 

2004, Yamazaki and Sugiura 2004) 

apple, Chinese (Malus prunifolia (=“M. (Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

“pruniflora”)) 1, 2 

arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) 3 

(Beeson 1941, Roonwal 1953, Roonwal et 

al. 1962, Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b, 

Pucat and Watler 1997, Rosovsky 2001, 

CAB 2004) 

ash (Fraxinus sp.) (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

asna (Terminalia elliptica (= Terminalia (Roonwal 1979b) 

tomentosa)) 

Australian red-cedar (Toona ciliata (= (Roonwal 1979b) 

Cedrela toona)) 

beech (Fagus sp.) (Mohn 1993, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et al. 1999, 

Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

beech, American (Fagus grandifolia)² (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

beech, European (Fagus sylvatica)² (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

beleric (Terminalia belerica) (Roonwal 1979b) 

Bengal kino (Butea monosperma) (Roonwal 1979b) 

birch (Betula sp.) 

(Baranchikov et al. 1995, Wallner et al. 

1995, Zlotina et al. 1998, Rosovsky 2001, 

CAB 2004) 

blackboard tree (Alstonia scholaris) (Roonwal 1979b) 

Buddhas coconut (Pterygota alata (Roonwal 1979b) 

(=Sterculia alata)) 

“Catania” sp. 1 (Lee and Lee 1996) 

Ceylon tea (Elaeodendron 

(Roonwal 1979b) 

(= “Eeodendron”) glaucum) 1 

cherry (Prunus sp.) 

(Pucat and Watler 1997, Zlotina et al. 

1998, CAB 2004) 

cherry, wild Himalayan (Prunus (Roonwal 1979b) 

cerasoides (= Prunus puddum)) 

chestnut (Castanea sp.) 

(Zhang 1994, Lee and Lee 1996, Rosovsky 

2001, CAB 2004) 

chestnut, Chinese hairy (Castanea (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

mollissima) 

chestnut, European (Castanea sativa) (Roonwal 1979b) 

china berry tree (Melia azedarach) (Roonwal 1979b) 

cottonwood (Populus sp.) 

(Baranchikov et al. 1995, Zlotina et al. 

1998) 


Hosts 

References 

crabapple, Manchurian (Malus 

(Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

mandshurica ([=“mandjurica”)) 1 

dhaoda (Anogeissus lalifolia) (Roonwal 1979b) 

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

duabanga (Duabanga grandiflora (= 

Duabanga sonneratioides)) 

elm (Ulmus sp.) 



1998) 

elm, Japanese (Ulmus davidiana) (Yurchenko and Turova 2002) 

fir (Abies sp.) (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

fir, Manchurian (Abies nephrolepis (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

(=“nephroletis”)) 1, 2 

Formosan sweetgum (Liquidambar (Mohn 1993, Zhang 1994, Rosovsky 2001, 

formosana) 

CAB 2004) 

Grewia sapinda (Roonwal 1979b) 

haldu (Haldina cordifolia (= Adina (Roonwal 1979b) 

cordifolia)) 

hickory (Carya sp.) (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

hollock (Terminalia myriocarpa) 3 (Beeson 1941, Roonwal 1953, Roonwal et 



CAB 2004) 

Indian banyan (Ficus benghalensis) (Roonwal 1979b) 

kadam (Neolamarckia cadamba (= (Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b, Pucat and 

Anthocephalus cadamba)) 

Watler 1997, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

kamala (Mallotus philipinensis) (Roonwal 1979b) 

larch (Larix sp.) 

(Wallner et al. 1995, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 

2004) 

leechee (Litchi chinensis) 

(Singh 1954, Roonwal 1979b, Rosovsky 

2001, CAB 2004) 

linden, Manchurian (Tilia mandshurica) (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

longaan (Dimocarpus longan) (Mohn 1993) 

Manchurian nut (Yurchenko and Turova 2002) 

mango (Mangifera indica) 

(Singh 1954, Browne 1968, Roonwal 

1979b, Mohn 1993, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Zlotina et al. 1998, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 

2004) 

monkey-jack tree (Artocarpus lacucha (Roonwal 1979b) 

(= Artocarpus lakoocha)) 

mulberry, white (Morus alba) (Roonwal 1979b) 

oak (Quercus sp.) 

(Odell et al. 1992, Mohn 1993, Wallner et 

al. 1995, Lee and Lee 1996, Pucat and 

Watler 1997, Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et 

al. 1999, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004, 

Yamazaki and Sugiura 2004) 


Hosts 

References 

oak, banj (Quercus leucotrichophora (= (Beeson 1941, Roonwal 1953, Roonwal et 

Quercus incana)) 3 



CAB 2004) 

oak, chestnut (Quercus prinus) 2 (Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et al. 1999) 

oak, Chinese cork (Quercus variabilis) 2 (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

oak, Daimyo (Quercus dentata) (Wileman 1918) 

oak, Japanese evergreen (Quercus acuta) (Wileman 1918) 

oak, Konara (Quercus serrata (=Q. 

glandulifera)) 3 

oak, Mongolian (Quercus mongolica) 

oak, ring-cup (Quercus glauca) (Funakoshi 2004) 

oak, white (Quercus alba) 2 (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

(Wileman 1918, Beeson 1941, Roonwal 

1953, Roonwal et al. 1962, Browne 1968, 

Roonwal 1979b, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 


1998, Rosovsky 2001, Yurchenko and 

Turova 2002, CAB 2004) 

pear (Pyrus sp.) 

(Pucat and Watler 1997, Zlotina et al. 

1998, CAB 2004) 

pine (Pinus sp.) 

(Lee and Lee 1996, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 

2004) 

pine, Korean (Pinus koraiensis) 2 (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

pink-cedar (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius) (Roonwal et al. 1962, Roonwal 1979b) 

plum, Java (Syzigium cumini (=Eugenia 

jambolana)) 3 




CAB 2004) 


pongame oil tree (Millettia pinnata 

(=Pongamia glabra)) 

Prunus sp. (Mohn 1993, Yamazaki and Sugiura 2004) 

rayana (Aphanamixis polystachya = (Roonwal 1979b) 

Amoora (=“Ammora”) rohituka) 1 

rose, Japanese (Rosa rugosa) 2 (Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

sal tree (Shorea robusta) 3 


al. 1962, Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979a, b, 


CAB 2004) 

sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) 2 (Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

sumac (Rhus sp.) (Gries et al. 1999) 

Terminalia pyrifolia (Roonwal 1979b) 

walnut (Juglans sp.) (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

walnut, Manchurian (Juglans 

mandshurica) 

waxtree, Japanese (Toxicodendron 

succedaneum (=Rhus succedanea)) 


1998) 

(Wileman 1918) 


Hosts 

willow (Salix sp.) 

References 

(Zlotina et al. 1998, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 

2004) 

willow, crack (Salix fragilis) 2 (Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

zelkowa (Zelkowa sp.) (Gries et al. 1999) 

zelkowa, Japanese (Zelkowa acuminata) (Wileman 1918) 

1. Likely mispelling in literature, or unrecognized name. 

2. Experimental hosts (Baranchikov et al. 1995, Zlotina et al. 1998) 

3. In 1954, following an outbreak in the New Forest Area (Western Sub-Himalayas), 185 tree 

species were observed with egg masses, 22 of these species were defoloiated, and 6 species 

(noted in the table) were heavily defoliated. L. mathura has historically demonstrated food 

preferences; depending on host availability some hosts may be chosen or avoided in the 

presence of more preferred species (Roonwal 1979b). 

See Appendix B for maps showing where various hosts are grown in the 

continental US. 

3. Survey Methodology. Rating: High. Several tools are available to assist with 

surveys for L. mathura. Pheromone-baited traps are particularly useful for 

regional surveys while visual inspections are necessary for conveyances that may 

be bringing L. mathura into an area. Inspectors should look for egg masses on 

any products originating from infested areas. Egg masses may be deposited on 

logs, nursery stock, forest products, or sea containers (Pucat and Watler 1997). 

Females prefer to deposit eggs on a rough surface (Roonwal 1979b). 

Sex pheromones for L. mathura have been identified and can be used for 

detection surveys. Early research (reviewed in Gries et al. 1999) indicated that 

males of L. mathura were attracted to cis-7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane and 2- 

methyl-Z7-octadecene (Odell et al 1992). 

Males also demonstrated 

elctrophysiological responses to 

(Z3,Z6,Z9)-nonadecatriene and (9S,10R)- 

9,10-epoxy-Z3,Z6-nonadecadiene in 

extracts from abdominal tips of L. 

mathura females (Oliver et al. 1999). 

Subsequent research revealed that major 

sex pheromone components include a 

blend of (9R,10S)-cis-9,10-epoxy-Z3,Z6- 

nonadecadiene (named (+)-mathuralure) 

and (9S,10R)-cis-9,10-epoxy-Z3,Z6- 

nonadecadiene (named (-)-mathuralure) in 

a 1:4 ratio (Gries et al. 1999). Neither 

component is attractive alone (Gries et al. 

1999). Khrimian et al. (2004) explain that 

the enantiomer (-)-mathuralure is 

equivalent to the compound identified by 

Oliver et al. (1999) and provide a detailed 

protocol for the synthesis of (+)- 

Figure 3. Delta trap used 

for detecting lymantriids. 

[Image from USDA APHIS PPQ 

Archives, www.forestpests.org] 


mathuralure and (-)-mathuralure in a 4:1 ratio. The pheromone is most effectively 

deployed using PVC-coated string dispensers with 64 µg pheromone per cm 

(Khrimian et al. 2004). Traps baited with (+)-disparlure will also attract male 

L. mathura (Odell et al. 1992). 

Pheromone lures have been used with Delta sticky traps (Fig. 3, Gries et al. 1999) 

or 3.8-L milk carton traps (Odell et al. 1992). Traps are generally hung 1.5-2 m 

[ca. 5-6.5 ft] above ground (Odell et al. 1992, Gries et al. 1999). To improve 

diffusion of the pheromone, traps have been suspended 0.6 m [2 ft] from the trunk 

of a tree on wooden stakes nailed to the tree (Odell et al. 1992). For research 

purposes, traps were placed 20-25 m apart (Gries et al. 1999), but standard 

protocols for detection of gypsy moth in uninfested states should be appropriate. 

Wallner et al. (1995) evaluated several light sources (e.g., diffuse coated sodium 

lamps; phosphor-coated, high-pressure mercury lamps, and blacklight lamps) and 

found that L. mathura were most attracted to blacklight. However, light traps are 

generally considered ineffective and impractical for regional monitoring of this 

insect (CAB 2004). 

4. Taxonomic Recognition. Rating: High. Lymantria mathura is not likely to be 

confused with other lymantrrids, particularly if a specimen is an adult or late 

instar larva (EPPO 2005). Eggs or neonates are incredibly difficult to distinguish, 

and molecular tools are being developed to aid with identification (Armstrong et 

al. 2003). Lymantria mathura might be confused with L. monacha (also exotic, 

not known to occur in the US) or L. dispar. See Appendix C for a more complete 

description of the morphology of L. mathura. 

5. Entry Potential. Rating: Low. Officers with USDA-APHIS and Department of 

Homeland Security did not report an interception of L. mathura at US ports of 

entry from 1985-2004 (USDA 2005). Two specimens, one L. dispar and one 

“Lymantria sp.,” were noted from infested sea containers in Wilmington, NC and 

Seattle, WA, respectively (USDA 2005). The container infested with L. dispar 

may have come from Germany, although the record questions this origin, while 

the container with Lymantria sp. came from the Russian Federation. These 

records may not reflect the true potential for entry of L. mathura. Lymantriids 

can be extremely difficult to identify, particularly as eggs and larvae. 

Interceptions of “Lymantriidae; species of” were reported much more frequently. 

Unidentified lymantriids were intercepted at least 112 times between 1985-2004 

(incomplete records complicate teh accuracy of this count) (USDA 2005); on 

average, 5.6 (±0.7 standard error of the mean) interceptions were reported 

annually. Most interceptions were associated with permit cargo (38%), 

international airline baggage (38%), and general cargo (17%) and were most 

commonly reported within the continental US from Los Angeles, CA (31%), JFK 

International airport, NY (25%), Dallas, TX (4%), Miami, FL (4%), and Long 

Beach, CA (4%). These ports are the first points of entry for infested material 

coming into the US and do not necessarily represent the final destination of 


infested material. Movement of potentially infested material is more fully 

characterized in the next section. 

Remarkably, a substantial number of unspecified lymantriid interceptions (USDA 

2005) were associated with cut flowers, for example Oncidium sp. (24%), 

Orchidaceae (7%), Dendrobium sp. (5%), and Astilbe sp. (2%). These plants are 

not known hosts for L. mathura, and it is possible that insects were strictly 

hitchhikers. However, only ~16% of the infested items came from a country 

known to have L. mathura. Thus, it seems unlikely that all or even most of the 

interceptions would have been of L. mathura. 

Even if all unidentified specimens of Lymantriidae had been L. mathura, this 

insect would still have an apparent low potential for entry, relative to other exotic 

insects. Although we assign a low rating to the potential for entry, we recognize 

that not all pathways for the introduction of forest pests have been studied with 

any detail. Consequently, a great deal of uncertainty is associated with the rating. 

6. Destination of Infested Material. Rating: Medium. When an actionable pest is 

intercepted, officers ask for the intended final destination of the conveyance. The 

shipments intercepted with L. dispar and “Lymantria sp.” were destined for North 

Carolina and Oregon, respectively (USDA 2005) Materials infested with 

“Lymantriidae” were destined for 17 of the contiguous United States. The most 

commonly reported destinations were California (38%), New York (24%), Texas 

(6%), Florida (6%), Georgia (3%), Illinois (3%), and Massachusetts (3%) (USDA 

2005). Some portion of each state identified as the intended final destination has 

a climate and hosts that would be suitable for establishment by L. mathura, yet 

probably very few of these interceptions involved L. mathura. Consequently, 

available data do not permit a confident evaluation of this element. 

7. Potential Economic Impact. Rating: High. Lymantria mathura larvae are 

gregarious defoliators, able to consume whole leaves and sometimes avoid tough 

veins in older foliage growth. Larvae may also feed on flowers and tender young 

shoots (Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b). Damage of this nature can result in 

decline in overall growth and development, a reduction in yield or total crop loss 

(fruit crops), or even tree death (Singh 1954, Roonwal 1979b). 

In India, L. mathura is an economically important forest pest, which defoliates 

Shorea robusta, and several other deciduous forest and fruit tree species [see 

‘Host Specificity’]. Roonwal (1953, 1962, 1979b) states that outbreaks are 

periodic, and prior to the worst epidemic of this pest on record in India during 

1953, L. mathura was considered unimportant. In India, this severe outbreak 

occurred in Uttar Pradesh in the New Forest area of Dehra Dun (approximately 

610 m in altitude, in the western sub-Himalayas). The outbreak extended from 

the western sub-Himalayas to West Bengal, encompassing several adjacent forest 

divisions. In the Russian Far East, there has been only one reported outbreak in 

the Primorie region, where losses amounted to hundreds of hectares of deciduous 


forests (Baranchikov et al. 1995). Damage to chestnut resulted from an outbreak 

of L. mathura in areas of Kyonggi province, Korea (Lee and Lee 1996). 

Establishment of L. mathura in the US could also adversely impact trade. This 

insect has been proposed as an A2 quarantine pest in Europe, a status reflecting its 

limited presence (EPPO 2005). Potentially infested products within the US could 

become the focus of domestic or international quarantines. 

8. Potential Environmental Impact. Rating: High. In general, newly established 

species may adversely affect the environment by reducing biodiversity, altering 

forest composition, disrupting ecosystem function, jeopardizing endangered or 

threatened plants, degrading critical habitat, or stimulating use of chemical or 

biological controls. Lymantria mathura is likely to affect the environment in 

many of these ways. 

Because L. mathura is known to adversely impact forest productivity and cause 

tree mortality with repeated outbreaks, this insect has the potential to directly and 

indirectly alter the structure and function of forests. Lymantria mathura has the 

potential to directly affect forest composition because it has a broad host range 

and feeds on foliage of primarily deciduous tree species [see ‘Host Specificity’]. 

Indirect effects stem from the arrival and establishment of secondary 

organisms/pathogens, such as opportunistic fungi. 

Synthetic insecticides are an option, but in many natural settings, complex terrain 

limits the feasibility of this option, especially over large areas. However, as has 

been observed with L. dispar, formulations of endotoxin from Bacillus 

thuringiensis (e.g, Bt-k) may be applied aerially to localized populations (Myers 

and Hosking 2002). Bt is generally considered host specific (Lacey and Siegel 

2000), but some exceptions have been noted especially after repeated applications 

(Lacey and Siegel 2000, Boulton 2004). Biological control is a much more likely 

option (Rosovsky 2001). Previous experience with gypsy moth demonstrates that 

predators, parasitoids, and pathogens might be introduced. In previous years, 

generalist agents (e.g., Compsilura concinata) were introduced, often with 

significant impacts on non-target species (reviewed in Syrett 2002). Current 

protocols for the screening of agents limit the likelihood of these severe impacts 

to non-target species (reviewed in Hoddle and Syrett 2002). 

Lymantria mathura may also jeopardize threatened or endangered plants. 

Appendix D summarizes state and federally listed threatened or endangered plant 

species (USDA 2001a) found within plant genera known to be hosts (or potential 

hosts) for L. mathura. Plants listed in Appendix D might be suitable hosts for 

L. mathura, and thus, could be adversely affected by this insect. 

9. Establishment Potential. Rating: Medium. Large areas of the United States 

are predicted to have a suitable climate for establishment of L. mathura, but this 

area is only moderate compared with the entire area of the country. The host 


status of many plants is largely inferred from the genera of plants attacked in 

Asia. Additional research is needed to confirm the susceptibility of US species. 

If host associations at the genus level continue to hold, several plants in the US 

would be threatened. Many of these hosts naturally occur over broad geographic 

areas and in relatively high densities. Thus, the potential for establishment seems 

high, but our confidence in this assessment is, at best, moderate. 

See Appendix E for a more detailed description of the biology of L. mathura. 

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Myers, J. H., and G. Hosking. 2002. Eradication, pp. 293-307. In G. J. Hallman and C. 

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Odell, T. M., C. Xu, P. W. Schaefer, B. A. Leonhardt, D. Yao, and X. Wu. 1992. 

Capture of gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), and Lymantria mathura (L.) males 

in traps baited with disparlure enantiomers and olefin precursor in the People's 

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Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung C Biosciences 54: 387-394. 

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E. C. Underwood, J. A. D'Amico, I. Itoua, H. E. Strand, J. C. Morrison, C. J. 

Loucks, T. F. Allnutt, T. H. Ricketts, Y. Kura, J. F. Lamoreux, W. W. 

Wettengel, P. Hedao, and K. R. Kassem. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the 

world: a new map of life on earth. BioScience 51: 933-938. 

Pfeifer, T. A., L. M. Humble, M. Ring, and T. A. Grigliatti. 1995. Characterization of 

gypsy moth populations and related species using a nuclear DNA marker. The 

Canadian Entomologist 127: 49-58. 

Pucat, A. M., and D. E. Watler. 1997. Lymantria mathura Moore: rosy (pink) gypsy 

moth. Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Plant Health Risk Assessment Unit. 

Available on-line at 

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/surv/data/lymmate.shtml. Accessed 18 

August 2005. 


Roonwal, M. L. 1953. Unusual population eruption of the moth, Lymantria mathura 

Moore, in autumn. Current Science 22: 384. 

Roonwal, M. L., P. N. Chatterjee, and R. S. Thapa. 1962. Experiments on the control 

of Lymantria mathura Moore (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) in the egg and larval 

stages in India, with general suggestions for its control. Zeitschrift fur 

Angewandte Entomologie 50: 463-475. 

Roonwal, M. L. 1979a. The willow, apple, and the sal defoliator. Indian Farming 29: 3- 

8. 

Roonwal, M. L. 1979b. Field-ecological studies on mass eruption, seasonal life-history, 

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the sal defoliator, Lymantria mathura (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), in sub- 

Himalayan forests. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 75: 209-236. 

Rosovsky, J. 2001. EXFOR Database Pest Report: Lymantria mathura. USDA Forest 

Service. Available on-line at 

http://www.spfnic.fs.fed.us/exfor/data/pestreports.cfm?pestidval=113&langdispla 

y=english. Accessed 4 August 2005. 

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Far East. J. Econ. Entomol. 88: 337-342. 

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pink gypsy moth (Lymantria mathura Moore) in the Russian Far East. Chteniya 

Pamyati Alekseya Ivanovicha Kurentsova 12: 84-96. 

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Wallingford, UK. 

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development of Lymantria mathura (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) on North 

American, Asian, and European tree species. J. Econ. Entomol. 91: 1162-1166. 

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tendencies of neonate larvae of Lymantria mathura and the Asian form of 

Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Environmental Entomology 28: 

240-245. 

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http://szmn.sbras.ru/Lepidop/Lymantr.htm. Accessed 22 August 2005. 


Appendix A. Geographic distribution and comparison of climate zones. To 

determine the potential distribution of a quarantine pest in the US, we first collected 

information about the worldwide geographic distribution of the species (Table A1). 

Using a geographic information system (e.g., ArcView 3.2), we then identified which 

biomes (i.e., habitat types), as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (Olson et al. 2001), 

occurred within each country or municipality reported An Excel spreadsheet 

summarizing the occurrence of biomes in each nation or municipality was prepared. The 

list was sorted based on the total number of biomes that occurred in each 

country/municipality. The list was then analyzed to determine the minimum number of 

biomes that could account for the reported worldwide distribution of the species. 

Countries/municipalities with only one biome were first selected. We then examined 

each country/municipality with multiple biomes to determine if at least one of its biomes 

had been selected. If not, an additional biome was selected that occurred in the greatest 

number of countries or municipalities that had not yet been accounted for. In the event of 

a tie, the biome that was reported more frequently from the entire species’ distribution 

was selected. The process of selecting additional biomes continued until at least one 

biome was selected for each country. Finally, the set of selected biomes was compared to 

only those that occur in the US. 

Table A1. Reported geographic distribution of Lymantria mathura: 

Locations 

References 

Asia (southeast) (Roonwal 1979b, Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

Bangladesh (Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

China (Wileman 1918, Zhang 1994, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Gries et al. 1999, Rosovsky 2001, Khrimian et al. 2004) 

China (Beijing) (Lewis et al. 1984) 

China (Dunhua) (Lewis et al. 1984, Odell et al. 1992) 

China (Heilogjiang Province) (CAB 2004) 

China (Heilongjiang Province - Menjiagang) (Lewis et al. 1984, Odell et al. 1992) 

China (Hong Kong) (Mohn 1993, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

China (Jiaohe) (Lewis et al. 1984) 

China (Jingpo Hu) (Lewis et al. 1984) 

China (Manchuria) (Wileman 1918, Pucat and Watler 1997) 

China (north) (Zlotina et al. 1998) 

China (northeast) (Wallner et al. 1995, Rosovsky 2001) 

China (Yabuli) (Lewis et al. 1984) 

China (Yunnan) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

India 

(Wileman 1918, Browne 1968, Zhang 1994, Pucat and 

Watler 1997, Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et al. 1999, 

Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004, Khrimian et al. 2004) 

India (Assam) (Beeson 1941, Roonwal 1953, Roonwal et al. 1962, 

Roonwal 1979a, b) 

India (Bengal - northeast) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

India (Darjeeling District - Tukdah) (Sevastopulo 1947) 

India (Darjeeling District) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

India (north) 

(Wileman 1918, Beeson 1941, Roonwal 1953, Roonwal et 

al. 1962, Schintlmeister 2004) 


Locations 

References 

India (northwest) (Baranchikov et al. 1995) 

India (Uttar Pradesh) (Roonwal et al. 1962, Roonwal 1979a, b) 

India (Uttaranchal - Dehra Dun) (Roonwal 1953, Singh 1954, Roonwal 1979b) 

India (Uttaranchal - Doon Valley) (Roonwal 1979b) 

India (West Bengal - Buxa Forest Division) (Roonwal 1979b) 

Japan (Wileman 1918, Zhang 1994, Pucat and Watler 1997, 

Zlotina et al. 1998, Gries et al. 1999, Rosovsky 2001, 

Khrimian et al. 2004, Schintlmeister 2004) 

Japan (central) (Funakoshi 2004) 

Japan (Higo Province - Kosadake-machi) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Hokkaido Prefecture - Bibai) (Gries et al. 1999) 

Japan (Hokkaido Prefecture - Jozankei) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Honshu) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

Japan (Iwate Prefecture - Morioka) (Gries et al. 1999) 

Japan (Iyo Province - Ohoki) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Kishu Province - Koyasan) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Kyushu) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Musashi Province - Kawai, Dzushi) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Musashi Province - Tokyo) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Nagahama) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

Japan (Osaka Prefecture - Sakai City) (Yamazaki and Sugiura 2004) 

Japan (Ryukyu Islands) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Settsu Province - Kobe) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Shinano Province - Karuizawa) (Wileman 1918) 

Japan (Yokohama) (Wileman 1918) 

Kashmir (Wileman 1918) 

Korea (Wileman 1918, Rosovsky 2001) 

Korea (Kyonggi Province - Jinjung-Ri) (Lee and Lee 1996) 

Korea (Kyonggi Province - Songchon-Ri) (Lee and Lee 1996) 

Korea, Republic of (CAB 2004) 

Kurile Islands (Wileman 1918) 

Myanmar (formerly Burma) (Roonwal 1979b) 

Pakistan (Browne 1968, Pucat and Watler 1997, Rosovsky 2001) 

Russia (Khrimian et al. 2004) 

Russia (Amur) (Zolotarenko and Dubatolov 1998) 

Russia (eastern Siberia) (Wileman 1918) 

Russia (eastern) (Gries et al. 1999) 

Russia (Far East - Yakolevka) (Pfeifer et al. 1995) 

Russia (Far East) 

(Baranchikov et al. 1995, Wallner et al. 1995, Zlotina et 

al. 1998, Anon. 2001, Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004) 

Russia (Nakhodka) (Anon. 2001) 

Russia (Primorsky Krai - Kavalerovo) (Zlotina et al. 1998, Zlotina et al. 1999) 

Russia (Primorsky Krai - Mineralni) (Wallner et al. 1995) 

Russia (Primorye Region - Barabash) (Oliver et al. 1999) 


Locations 

Russia (Primorye Region) 

References 

(Baranchikov et al. 1995, Zolotarenko and Dubatolov 

1998) 

Russia (Siberia) (CAB 2004) 

Russia (Vladivostok) (Oliver et al. 1999, Anon. 2001, Rosovsky 2001) 

Russia (Vostochny) (Anon. 2001) 

Taiwan (Zhang 1994, Pucat and Watler 1997, Gries et al. 1999, 

Rosovsky 2001, CAB 2004, Schintlmeister 2004) 

Taiwan (Puli-Wushe) (Schintlmeister 2004) 

temperate broadleaf and mixed forest 2 (Schintlmeister 2004) 

temperate coniferous forest 2 (Schintlmeister 2004) 

tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest 2 (Schintlmeister 2004) 

tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf (Schintlmeister 2004) 

forest 2 

United States of America 1 (N. America; west (Baranchikov et al. 1995, CAB 2004) 

coast ports) 

1. Intercepted but not established (Baranchikov et al. 1995, CAB 2004). 

2. Refer to map by Schintlmeister for general locations; no scale provided (Schintlmeister 2004). 


Appendix B. Host distribution (partial) for Lymantria 

mathura. The host status of all species has not 

necessarily been confirmed. 

Map 1. Apple (Malus domestica) 

Little, Atlas of United States Trees, 2004 

climchange.cr.usgs.gov/data/atlas/little/ 

Map 2. American beech (Fagus grandifolia) 

Map 3. Cherry (Prunus avium) 



Map 4. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 

Map 5. Mango (Mangifera indica) 






Map 6. Banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) 

Map 7. Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) 



Map 8. White oak (Quercus alba) 

Map 9. Pear (Pyrus communis) 


Appendix C. Taxonomy and morphology of Lymantria mathura 

Synonyms 

Portheria mathura (Moore) 

Ocneria mathura (Moore) 

Lymantria aurora Butler 

Lymantria fusca Leech 

Lymantria mathura aurora Butler 

Diagnostic features 

For complete accuracy, the following morphological descriptions of L. mathura are 

quoted from Moore (1865) and Roonwal (1979b). 

Lymantria mathura 

“Lymantria mathura Moore (Lepidoptera : Lymantriidae) is a moderate sized moth... 

There is marked sexual dimorphism in size and colour. The male is smaller (wing 

expanse male: 35-50mm; female: 75-95mm), with the forewings brown and hindwings 

yellow. In females the forewings are white with dark markings, and the hindwings 

pink...”(Roonwal 1979b). 

Male 

“Upperside-fore wing greyish white, markings brown, with pale-brown interspaces; with 

two or three black and yellow spots at the base; two transverse subbasal irregular lines, 

between which is a broad band; a round spot within the cell and a blackish curved streak 

at its end; three transverse discal lunulated bands, the first broad, the others narrow; a 

marginal row of spots: hind wing dull yellow, with a blackish discal spot, narrow 

submarginal maculated band, and a marginal row of small spots. Underside dull yellow, 

suffused with pale brown between the veins, with darker-brown discal and marginal 

spots. Thorax white, with yellow and black spots. Abdomen yellow, tuft white, with 

dorsal, lateral, and a row beneath of black spots. Head at the sides, palpi in front, and legs 

yellow; palpi above and at the sides, and spots on the legs, black. Antennae brown. 

Expanse 2¼ inches” (Moore 1865). 

“Egg-masses and covering hairs” 

Egg masses are laid from ground-level up to about 18 m (60 ft.) of the trunk, but are most 

dense between the levels of 0.5 to 5 m. They are flat, of an ovoid-elongate or other 

shape, with irregular edges, and vary in extent from about 0.5 x 1 cm to 6 x 15 cm. From 

a distance the egg masses are visible as characteristic white, fluffy patches against the 

dark-coloured bark. Each egg-mass contains about 50 to 1,200 or more eggs which are 

laid 2 to 4 layers deep directly on the bark. An egg-mass is covered over with a nearly 

one-millimetre, white thick felt-like covering composed of long, white, silken hairs. (... 

these hairs are shed by the female from the anal tuft. ... ) The hairs are about 800-1200 µ 

long and 3.1-6.2 µ in diameter; one end is knob-like, the other pointed; a few such hairs 

are also mixed with the eggs. Freshly laid eggs are rounded, have a flat base, the 


maximum and minimum diameters varying from 1 .13-1.19 mm and 0.86-0.92 mm 

respectively ” (Roonwal 1979b). 

“Egg-mass after hatching” 

After the majority of eggs have hatched, an egg mass presents a changed appearance. 

Firstly, the hair-covering which has hitherto (for several months in the case of the 

overwintering eggs) remained pure white, now becomes dull-coloured, a dirty cream, 

and, in a few cases, with irregular patches of pale buff. Secondly, the hair covering 

is pierced by numerous rounded holes of varying diameters (c. 0.5-3 mm) through which 

the newly hatched larvae have escaped. Beneath the thin, hole-pierced, hairy covering, 

there is a flat, hollow space containing the remnants of eggshells and a few remaining 

eggs which have not yet hatched” (Roonwal 1979b). 

Larvae 

“Three main colour forms are found in mature caterpillars, the following proportions 

being noticed in 1,613 caterpillars examined: grey-white 66 %, intermediate 11 %, and 

blackish brown 23 %. The details of colour are described below briefly. 

Form I (Grey-white) : Ground colour dirty white tinged with grey. Dorsal : Head white 

with numerous black or brown spots; frons with a longitudinal median black streak; rest 

of body grey-white, with numerous fine dots forming paired patches. A transverse 

yellow-brown streak present between pro- and mesothorax, and another in middle of 

metathorax: abdominal warts blackish; paired lateral papules on abdomen white, with 

tufts of long white and brown hairs. Long pencil-like plumes of hairs on head and on, end 

of abdomen black. Ventral: Brownish pink; legs and prolegs brown, the latter with a 

black patch externally. 

Form II (Intermediate): Dorsal: Ground colour pale brown, with a median white patch on 

abdominal terga 4 and 5. Ventral: As in Form I. 

Form III (Blackish brown): Dorsal: Ground-colour dark brown to almost black; numerous 

black spots visible in brown larvae but merged with ground-colour in darker ones; several 

small white dots present on abdominal terga 4 to the last, and large white patches on terga 

4-6. Ventral: Ashy, suffused with a little pink in the median parts; rest as in Form I. 

In the masses of caterpillars on tree trunks the various colour types are mixed on 

individual trees; this fact has a protective value by making detection by enemies difficult” 

(Roonwal 1979b). 

“The size ... characteristics of the six larval stages are given below briefly... 

Stage I. Length 3 mm; head-width 0.5 mm. Generally black dorsally; meso- and 

metathorax and segment 5 of abdomen brown; legs black; prolegs pale brown with a 

black patch externally. 


Stage II. Length 5 mm; head-width 0.7 mm. Generally black dorsally; meso- and 

metathorax greyish; last abdominal segment pale brown with blackish tinge; rest as in 

Stage I. 

Stage III. Length 13 mm; head-width 1.5 mm. Head brown; body black above, paler 

below; thoracic terga with yellow-brown spots; legs black, prolegs brown with a black 

external patch. 

Stage IV. Length 20 mm; head-width 2.5 mm. Head above either black (brown distally) 

or pale green with black dots; sides brown; body black with white warts; meso- and 

metathorax with brown stripes anteriorly; legs and prolegs as in Stage III. 

Stage V. Length 30-40 mm; head-width 3.5 mm. Head above brown to grey, speckled 

with black; body black with many minute white spots; pro- and mesothorax with a 

transverse brown streak at the distal edge; ninth abdominal segment with a pair of 

prominent dorsal white spots; legs and prolegs reddish brown, the latter with a 

large black patch externally. 

Stage VI. Length 60-85 mm; head-width 5-6 mm. With sexual dimorphism, females 

being longer (males: 60-65 mm, females: 70-85 mm). Colour pattern similar to Stage V, 

but in ground-pattern three types recognizable, viz., grey-white, blackish-brown and 

intermediate (vide infra). Older larvae well “camouflaged” against tree trunks” (Roonwal 

1979b). 

The pupa 

“The pupa is of the ‘obtect adecticus type,’ and the appendages are firmly soldered to the 

body. It is buff to dark brown, about 20-36 mm long, and shows sexual dimorphism; the 

female pupa is paler, larger and heavier than the male, as follows: 

Female: Buff to pale brown. Length (including hair tufts) 30-36 mm; maximum 

width 10-14 mm. Weight 0.88 gm (average of 18 pupae). 

Male: Very dark chocolate brown, Length (including hair tufts) 15-25 mm; 

maximum width 6-8 mm. Weight 0.14 gm (average of 53 pupae)” (Roonwal 

1979b). 


Appendix D. Threatened or endangered plants potentially affected by Lymantria mathura. 

Lymantria mathura has the potential to adversely affect threatened and endangered plant species. Because L. mathura is not known to 

be established in the US and threatened and endangered plant species do not occur outside the US, it is not possible to confirm the host 

status of these rare plants from the scientific literature. From available host records, L. mathura is known to feed on species within the 

following families: Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Betulaceae, Celastraceae, Combretaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Elaeagnaceae, 

Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Fagaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Juglandaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, 

Oleaceae, Pinaceae, Roseaceae, Rubiaceae, Salicaceae, Sapindaceae, Tiliaceae, and Ulmaceae. From these host records, we infer that 

threatened or endangered plant species which are closely related to known host plants might also be suitable hosts (Table D1) (USDA 

NRCS 2004). For our purposes closely related plant species belong to the same genus. 

Table D1: Threatened and endangered plants in the conterminous U.S. that are potential hosts for 

Lymantria mathura. 

Documented/Reported Hosts 

Threatened and/or Endangered Plant Protected Status 1 

Scientific Name Common Name Federal State 

Abies sp., A. nephrolepis Abies balsamea balsam fir CT (E) 

A. fraseri Fraser fir TN (T) 

Alnus sp. Alnus incana ssp. rugosa speckled alder IL (E) 

A. viridis ssp. crispa mountain alder MA (T) 

PA (E) 

Betula sp. Betula alleghaniensis yellow birch IL (E) 

B. minor dwarf white birch ME (E) 

NY (E) 

B. nana [= B. glandulosa] dwarf birch ME (E) 

NH (T) 

NY (E) 

B. nigra river birch NH (T) 

B. papyrifera var. cordifolia mountain paper birch TN (E) 

B. populifolia gray birch IL (E) 







B. pumila bog birch IA (T) 

MA (E) 

NH (E) 

NY (T) 

OH (T) 

B. pumila var. glandulifera bog birch VT (E) 

B. uber Virginia roundleaf birch T VA (E) 

Carya sp. Carya aquatica water hickory KY (T) 

C. cordiformis bitternut hickory ME (E) 

C. laciniosa shellbark hickory MD (E) 

NY (T) 

C. myristiciformis nutmeg hickory NC (T) 

C. pallida sand hickory AR (T) 

IL (E) 

IN (T) 

C. texana black hickory IN (E) 

Castanea sp., C. mollissima, 

C. sativa 

Castanea dentata American chestnut KY (E) 

MI (E) 

C. pumila chinkapin KY (T) 

NJ (E) 

Fraxinus sp. Fraxinus profunda pumpkin ash MI (T) 

NJ (E) 

PA (E) 

F. quadrangulata blue ash IA (T) 

WI (T) 

Juglans sp., J. mandshurica Juglans cinerea butternut TN (T) 

Larix sp. Larix laricina tamarack IL (T) 

MD (E) 





Malus sp., M. mandshurica, 

M. prunifolia 



Malus angustifolia southern crabapple FL (T) 

IL (E) 

M. glaucescens Dunbar crabapple NY (E) 

Morus alba Morus rubra red mulberry CT (E) 

MA (E) 

MI (T) 

VT (T) 

Pinus sp., P. koraiensis Pinus banksiana jack pine IL (E) 

NH (T) 

VT (T) 

P. echinata shortleaf pine IL (E) 

P. pungens Table Mountain pine NJ (E) 

P. resinosa red pine CT (E) 

IL (E) 

NJ (E) 

P. virginiana Virginia pine NY (E) 

Populus sp. Populus balsamifera balsam poplar IL (E) 

OH (E) 

PA (E) 

P. heterophylla swamp cottonwood CT (E) 

MA (E) 

MI (E) 

NY (T) 

Prunus sp., P. cerasoides Prunus alleghaniensis Allegheny plum MD (T) 

NJ (E) 

PA (T) 

P. americana American plum NH (T) 

VT (T) 

P. angustifolia Chickasaw plum NJ (E) 





Quercus sp., Q. acuta, Q. alba, 

Q. dentata, Q. glauca, 

Q. leucotrichophora, 

Q. mongolica, Q. prinus, 

Q. serrata, Q. variabilis 



Prunus geniculata scrub plum E FL (E) 

P. maritima beach plum MD (E) 

ME (E) 

PA (E) 

P. maritima var. gravesii Grave’s plum CT (E) 

P. nigra Canadian plum IA (E) 

P. pumila sandcherry AR (T) 

TN (T) 

P. pumila var. depressa eastern sandcherry NY (T) 

P. pumila var. pumila Great Lakes sandcherry NY (E) 

P. pumila var. susquehanae [= P. pumilla var. Sesquehana sandcherry OH (T) 

cuneata] 

Quercus acerifolia mapleleaf oak AR (T) 

Q. bicolor swamp white oak ME (T) 

Q. coccinea scarlet oak ME (E) 

Q. falcata southern red oak OH (T) 

PA (E) 

Q. hinckleyi Hinckley oak T TX (T) 

Q. ilicifolia bear oak VT (E) 

Q. imbricaria shingle oak NJ (E) 

Q. lyrata overcup oak NJ (E) 

Quercus macrocarpa bur oak CT (E) 

Q. muehlenbergii [= Q. prinoides] chinkapin oak IN (E) 

Q. nigra water oak NJ (E) 

Q. oglethorpensis Oglethorpe oak GA (T) 







Quercus phellos willow oak IL (T) 

NY (E) 

PA (E) 

Q. prinus [= Q. montana] chestnut oak IL (T) 

ME (T) 

Q. shumardii Shumard’s oak MD (T) 

PA (E) 

Q. sinuata var. sinuata [= Q. durandii] bastard oak AR (T) 

Q. texana [= Q. nuttallii] Texas red oak IL (E) 

Rosa rugosa Rosa acicularis prickly rose IA (E) 

IL (E) 

MA (E) 

NH (E) 

VT (E) 

R. acicularis ssp. sayi prickly rose NY (E) 

R. blanda smooth rose MD (E) 

OH (T) 

R. minutifolia Baja rose CA (E) 

R. nitida shining rose NY (E) 

Rhus sp. Rhus aromatica var. arenaria fragrant sumac IN (T) 

R. michauxii false poison sumac E FL (E) 

GA (E) 

NC (E) 

Salix sp., S. fragilis Salix arctophila northern willow ME (E) 

S. argyrocarpa Labrador willow ME (E) 

NH (T) 

S. bebbiana Bebb willow MD (E) 







Salix candida sageleaf willow ME (T) 

OH (T) 

PA (E) 

S. caroliniana costal plain willow OH (T) 

PA (E) 

S. cordata [= S. syrticola] heartleaf willow IL (E) 

NY (E) 

WI (E) 

S. eriocephala [= S. cordata] Missouri River willow FL (E) 

IN (T) 

S. exigua narrowleaf willow CT (T) 

MD (E) 

S. floridana Florida willow FL (E) 

GA (E) 

S. herbacea snowbed willow ME (T) 

NH (T) 

NY (E) 

S. interior sandbar willow ME (E) 

S. lucida shining willow IA (T) 

MD (E) 

S. myricoides bayberry willow ME (E) 

S. pedicellaris bog willow CT (E) 

IA (T) 

NJ (E) 

OH (E) 

PA (E) 

S. pellita satiny willow NH (T) 

WI (E) 







Salix petiolaris meadow willow OH (T) 

PA (E) 

S. planifolia diamondleaf willow ME (T) 

MI (T) 

NH (T) 

VT (T) 

WI (T) 

S. pyrifolia balsam willow NY (T) 

S. sericea silky willow AR (E) 

S. serissima autumn willow IL (E) 

IN (T) 

PA (T) 

S. sessilifolia northwest sandbar 

WA (T) 

willow 

S. uva-ursi bearberry willow ME (T) 

NY (T) 

VT (E) 

Tilia mandshurica Tilia americana var. heterophylla [= T. American basswood IL (E) 

heterophylla] 

Toxicodendron succedaneum Toxicodendron rydbergii western poison ivy OH (E) 

T. vernix poison sumac KY (E) 

Ulmus sp., U. davidiana Ulmus thomasii rock elm IL (E) 

NY (T) 

OH (T) 

1. E= Endangered; T=Threatened. 


Appendix E. Biology of Lymantria mathura 

Population phenology 

Lymantria mathura is bivoltine (Beeson 1941, Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b, 

Baranchikov et al. 1995, Lee and Lee 1996). Roonwal (1953, 1962, 1979b) provides a 

thorough review of the phenology and behavior of L. mathura following the most 

damaging outbreak on record for this pest in 1953 in Uttar Pradesh, India. The first 

generation occurs between April and October. Eggs are laid between mid-April and mid- 

June and hatch in 3-4 weeks. Larvae and pupae occur from early June to late September, 

and from late July to late October, respectively. In the second or overwintering 

generation, eggs are laid between early September to mid-October, and embryos are 

developed within 6 weeks. This generation overwinters as developed embryos, and eggs 

hatch in the spring between February and early April, depending on temperature. 

Incubation requires160-178 days, or a shorter duration in warmer temperatures. Of 426 

field-collected pupae in the overwintering generation in the New Forest area, 58% were 

male. The pupal stage occurs within 10-11 days for this generation. 

In outbreak years, L. mathura tends to lay eggs on many tree species, including nonhosts. 

Lymantria mathura eggs were laid on 185 different host species, and of these, 22 

tree species were later defoliated by feeding larvae, and 6 species were heavily defoliated 

[see ‘Host Specificity’]. Lymantria mathura has historically demonstrated food 

preferences, but these preferences depend on which hosts are available (Roonwal 1979b, 

Baranchikov et al. 1995). The selection of a location for egg deposition may also depend 

on the presence or density of other egg masses, host preference, and the extent of feeding 

that has already occurred on a host (Roonwal 1979b). 

Stage specific biology 

Several papers discuss periods of development for L. mathura and related species, 

however there are no known temperature developmental thresholds for L. mathura in 

published literature obtained to date (Anon. 2001). 

Adult 

Flight has been observed between 1-3 a.m. in far east Russia. Flight activity is not well 

known for this species, but is thought to coincide with peak flight activity of two closely 

related species, L. dispar and L. monacha (Anon. 2001). Males are scarcely seen and die 

about a week before females. Females congregate in groups of 6 or more near the egg 

masses and become inactive after laying eggs. They do not fly or feed before dying 

(Roonwal 1979b). 

Egg 

Between 50-1,200 eggs are laid in white, distinctive silky hair-covered masses on trunks 

and large branches of deciduous hosts (Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b). Eggs are laid 

from the base of a tree trunk to a height of about 18 m (60 ft.), and most egg masses tend 

to occur at a height between 0.5 to 5 m (Roonwal 1979b). 


During an outbreak in the New Forest area of the western sub-Himalayas in 1953-54, 

between 1-223 egg masses were reported on 405 trees over an area of 10 km 2 . After eggs 

hatch, the egg mass becomes darker in color. The group of newly hatched larvae remain 

near the hair-covered mass for 2-3 weeks. It is not known whether the larvae recieve 

some nutritive benefit from the mass prior to feeding on foliage (Roonwal 1979b). 

Larva 

There are 6 larval stages or instars and 5 molts. Larvae are gregarious defoliators, 

devouring entire leaves, sometimes avoiding tough veins in older growth. Larvae may 

also feed on flowers and tender young shoots (Browne 1968, Roonwal 1979b). Early 

stages of larvae move about more freely than later instars (Roonwal 1979b). Late instar 

larvae have demonstrated regular periods of daily dispersal activity (Roonwal 1979b, 

Zlotina et al. 1999). Roonwal (1979b) observed that caterpillars remained still and at rest 

for much of the day and migrated to the tree crown to feed at night. Prior to dusk, 

caterpillars exhibited a characteristic twisting body movement, then crawled to the tree 

crown at a rate of approximately 65.5 cm/min. Feeding occurs from dusk to near dawn, 

followed by a rapid descent to the trunk. Larval densities may approach can average was 

1,338 / tree (1,140-1,671), or an average of 629 larvae (510-836) per square meter 

(Roonwal 1979b). Density on the host trunk reached a maximum at 5 PM, just prior to 

the evening migration to the crown. Early instar L. mathura larvae are thought to possess 

the ability to disperse in a similar manner as other related species, by dropping on a 

trailing silk thread and utilizing air and wind currents to “balloon” to other locations 

(Zlotina et al. 1999). 

Zlotina et al. (1999) studied dispersal rates, settling velocities and diel dispersal activity 

of L. mathura and L. dispar larvae. Lymantria mathura larvae showed a higher dispersal 

tendency than L. dispar. Unlike L. dispar, larval dispersal tendency was inversely related 

to larval weight, with lighter individuals having a greater propensity to disperse (Zlotina 

et al. 1999). Settling velocity of L. dispar larvae was significantly higher compared to 

that of L. mathura. This result suggests that larvae of L. mathura may disperse farther 

via wind than L. dispar. Dispersal activity was influenced by time of day. Activity of 

L. mathura larvae began to increase after 11AM and peaked at 5 PM , while L. dispar 

activity began to increase after noon , and peaked at 4 PM (Zlotina et al. 1999). This 

result indicates that L. mathura has a greater window of activity than L. dispar. 

Collectively, these results imply that ballooning of neonate larvae from infested ships 

could be an important means for the arrival. 

When population density is high, parasitism by Hymenoptera and polyhedral viral disease 

may result in high mortality of larvae and pupae (Roonwal 1979b). 

Pupa 

Pupation often occurs in groups of 40-50 in protected areas of branches, in leaf litter at 

the base of trees, or on the back or underside of signs or other objects (Browne 1968, 

Roonwal 1979b).

Pink Gypsy Moth - aphis - US Department of Agriculture

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